The Risks of Not Breastfeeding – What is the Evidence?

Breastfeeding is the appropriate way to feed an infant.

Such a simple statement. So intuitively sensible. (Virtually) everyone seems to accept that there are health and psychological benefits to breastfeeding, yet very few babies in developed countries are nourished according to internationally recognized health recommendations, i.e. breastfed exclusively for 6 months.  We live in a time and place where we ‘talk the talk’, but fail pretty miserably at ‘walking the walk’.  For whatever reason, the vast majority of us ultimately choose to partially or exclusively formula feed our babies:

In Canada, only 15% of babies are exclusively breast fed until 6 months of age. In the United States: 14%. In the UK, only 7% and 3% of babies are exclusively breastfed by 4 and 5 months of age respectively.  For some reason, and despite valiant global efforts, national and international initiatives to improve breastfeeding rates have demonstrated only very limited success.  For some good discussion about why efforts at improving breastfeeding rates have so far accomplished very little, see here, here, here, and here.

We should all be asking ourselves what we can do to improve this situation.  Here’s my small contribution to the cause:

I would like to share with you a list of research papers that demonstrate the scientific evidence supporting breastfeeding as the appropriate way to nourish a baby.   Thank you, Dr. Jack Newman for curating this resource and allowing me to share it. Sharing knowledge can be a very effective way to impart change.  I encourage you to use the information below in a meaningful way. Please, just be sure to credit Dr. Newman if/when you make reference to the list.

The Risks of Not Breastfeeding

Risk to Baby

Reviews:

1. Walker M. A fresh look at the risks of artificial feeding. J Hum Lact 1993;9:97-107
2. Cunningham AS, Jelliffe DB, Jelliffe EFP. Breastfeeding and health in the 1980’s: a global epidemiologic review. J Pediatr 1991;118:659-66
3. Oddy WH. Breastfeeding protects against illness and infection in infants and children: a review of the evidence. Breastfeeding Review 2001;9(2):11-18
4. Van Estrick P. Risks, rights and regulation. Communicating about risks and infant feeding. Revised June 2001.
5. Fewtrell MS. The long-term benefits of having been breastfed. Current Paediatrics 2004;14:97-103

Mortality:

1. Chen A, Rogan WJ. Breastfeeding and the risk of postneonatal death in the United States. Pediatrics 2004;113:e435-e435
2. Viennemann MM, Does breastfeeding reduce the risk of sudden infant death syndrome? Pediatrics 2009;123(3):e406-e410

Financial costs of not breastfeeding:

1. Montgomery DL, Splett PL. Economic benefit of breastfeeding infants enrolled in WIC. J Am Diet Assoc 1997;97:379-85
2. Ball TM, Wright AL. Health care costs of formula feeidng in the first year of life. Pediatrics 1999;4:870-6

Cognitive Development:

CD (review): Andraca I, Uauy R. Breastfeeding for optimal mental development. Simopoulos AP, Dutra de Oliveira JE, Desai ID (eds): Behavioral and Metabolic Aspects of Breastfeeding. World Rev Nutr Diet. Basel, Karger, 1995;78:1-27
CD (review): Gordon N. Nutrition and cognitive function. Brain and Development 1997;19:165-70
CD (review): Rey J. Breastfeeding and cognitive development. Acta Paed Supp 2003;442:11-18
CD-1: Morrow-Tlucak M, Haude RH, Ernhart CB. Breastfeeding and cognitive development in the first 2 years of life. Soc Sci Med 1988;26:635-9
CD-2: Taylor B, Wadsworth J. Breastfeeding and child development at five years. Dev Med Child Neurol 1984;26:73-80
CD-3: Lucas A, Morley R, Cole TJ, Lister G, Leeson-Payne C. Breastmilk and subsequent intelligence quotient in children born preterm. Lancet 1992;339:261-4
CD-4: Nettleton JA. Are n-3 fatty acids essential nutrients for fetal and infant development. J Am Diet Assoc 1993;93:58-64
CD-5: Rogan WJ, Gladen BC. Breastfeeding and cognitive development. Early Hum Dev 1993;31:181-93
CD-6: Silver LB, Levinson RB, Laskin CR, Pilot LJ. Learning disabilities as a probable consequence of using chloride-deficient infant formula. J Pediatr 1989;115:97-9
CD-7: Willoughby A, Moss HA, Hubbard VS, Bercu BB, Graubard BI, Vietze PM, et al. Developmental outcome in children exposed to chloride deficient formula. Pediatrics 1987;79:851-7
CD-8: Wing CS. Defective infant formulas and expressive language problems: a case study. Language, Speech and Hearing Services in Schools 1990;21:22-7
CD-9: Crawford MA. The role of essential fatty acids in neural development: implications for perinatal nutrition. Am J Clin Nutr 1993;57(suppl):703S-10S
CD-10: Temboury MC, Otero A, Polanco I, Arribas E. Influence of breastfeeding on the infant’s intellectual development. J Pediatric Gastroenterol Nutr 1994;18:32-36
CD-11: Pollock JI. Longterm associations with infant feeding in a clinically advantaged population of babies. Dev Med Child Neur 1994;36:429-40
CD-12: Makrides M, Neumann MA, Byard RW, Simmer K, Gibson RA. Fatty acid composition of brain, retina and erythrocytes in breast and formula fed infants. Am J Clin Nutr 1994;60:189-94
CD-14: Anderson GJ, Connor WE, Corliss JD. Docosohexaenoic acid is the preferred dietary n-3 fatty acid for the development of the brain and retina. Pediatr Res 1990;27:87-97
CD-15: Neuringer M, Connor WE, Lin DS, Barstad L, Luck S. Biochemical and functional effects of prenatal and postnatal fatty acid deficiency on retina and brain in rhesus monkeys. Proc Natl Acad Sc USA 1986;83:4021-5
CD-16: Florey C Du V, Leech AM, Blackhall A. Infant feeding and mental and motor development at 18 months of age in first born singletons. Int J Epidem 1995;24 (Suppl 1):S21-6
CD-17: Wang YS, Wu SY. The effect of exclusive breastfeeding on development and incidence of infection in infants. JHL 1996;12:27-30
CD-18: Greene LC, Lucas A, Livingstone BE, Harland PSEG, Baker BA. Relationship between early diet and subsequent cognitive performance during adolescence. Biochem Soc Trans 1995;23:376S
CD-19: Riva E, Agostoni C, Biasucci G, Trojan S, Luotti D, Fiori L, et al. Early breastfeeding is linked to higher intelligence quotient scores in dietary treated phenylketonuric children. Acta Pædiatr 1996;85:56-8
CD-20: Niemelä A, Järvenpää A-L. Is breastfeeding beneficial and maternal smoking harmful to the cognitive development of children? Acta Pædiatr 1996;85:1202-6
CD-21: Rodgers B. Feeding in infancy and later ability and attainment: a longitudinal study. Devel Med Child Neurol 1978;20:421-6
CD-22: Horwood LJ, Fergusson DM. Breastfeeding and later cognitive and academic outcomes. Pediatrics 1998;101:p. e9
CD-23: Paine BJ, Makrides M, Gibson RA. Duration of breastfeeding and Bayley’s mental developmental Index at 1 year of age. J Paediatr Child Health 1999;35:82-5
CD-24: Fergusson DM, Beautrais AL, Silva PA. Breastfeeding and cognitive development In the first seven years of life. Soc Sci Med 1982;16:1705-8
CD-25: Vestergaard M, Obel C, Henriksen TB, Sørensen HT, Skajaa E, Østergaard J. Duration of breastfeeding and developmental milestones during the latter half of Infancy. Acta Paediatr 1999;88:1327-32
CD-26: Rao MR, Hediger ML, Levine RJ, Naficy AB, Vik T. Effect of breastfeeding on cognitive development of infants born small for gestational age. Acta Paediatr 2002;91:267-74
CD-27: Wang B, McVeigh P, Petocz P, Brand-Miller J. Brain ganglioside and glycoprotein sialic acid in breastfed compared with formula fed infants. Am J Clin Nutr 2003;78:1024-9
e-1: Felman R, Eidelman A. Direct and indirect effects of breastmilk on neurobehavioral and cognitive development of premature infants. Dev Psychobiol 2003;43:109-119
CD-28: Anderson JW, Johnstone BM, Remley DT. Breastfeeding and cognitive development: a meta-analysis. Am J Clin Nutr 1999;70:525-35
CD-29: Batstra L, Neeleman J, Hadders-Algra M. Can breastfeeding modify the adverse effects of smoking during pregnancy on the child’s cognitive development. J Epidemiol Community Health 2003;57:403-404
CD-30: Mortensen EL, Michaelsen KF, Sanders SA, Reinisch JM. The association between duration of breastfeeding and adult intelligence. J Am Med Assoc 2002;287:2365-71
CD-31: Angelsen NK, Vik T, Jacobsen G, Bakketeig LS. Breastfeeding and cognitive development at age 1 and 5 years. Arch Dis Child 2001;85:183-8
CD-32: Oddy WH, Kendall GE, Blair E, et al. Breastfeeding and cognitive development in childhood: a prospective birth cohort study. Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology 2003;17:81-90
CD-33: Victora CG, Barros FC, Horta BL, Lima RC. Breastfeeding and school achievement in Brazilian adolescents. Acta Paediatr 2005;94:1656-60

Neurologic Outcome

N-1: Lanting CI, Fidler V, Huisman M, Touwen BCL, Boersma ER. Neurological differences between 9 year old children fed breastmilk or formula milk as babies. Lancet 1994;344:1319-22
N-2: Lanting CI, Patandin S, Weisglas-Kuperus N, Touwen BCL, Boersma ER.Breastfeeding and neurological outcome at 42 months. Acta Paediatr 1998;87:1224-9
N-3: Bouwstra H, Boersma ER, Boehm G, et al. Exclusive breastfeeding of healthy term infants for at least 6 weeks improves neurological condition. J Nutr 2003;133:4243-5
N-4: Khedr EMH, Farghaly WMA, El-Din Amry S, Osman AAA. Neural maturation of breastfed and formula fed infants. Acta Paediatr 2004;93:734-8

Obesity in Children

1. Kramer MS. Do breastfeeding and delayed introduction of solid foods protect against subsequent obesity? J Pediatr 1981;98:883-7
2.Casabiell X, Piñeiro V, Tomé MA, et al. Presence of leptin in colostrum and/or breastmilk from lactating mothers: a potential role in the regulation of neonatal food intake. J Clin Endocrin Metab 1997;82 (12):4270-3
3. von Kries R, Koletzko B, Sauerwald T, von Mutius E, Barnert D, Grunert V, von Voss H. Breastfeeding and obesity: cross sectional study. Br Med J 1999;319:147-50
4. Gillman MW, Rifas-Shiman SL, Camargo CA, Berkey CS, Frazier AL Rockett HRH, et al. Risk of overweight among adolescents who were breastfed as infants. J Am Med Assoc 2001:285:2461-7
5. Dietz WH. Breastfeeding may prevent childhood overweight. J Am Med Assoc 2001;285:2506-7 (editorial)
6. Liese AD, Hirsch T, von Mutius E, Keil U, Leupold W, Weiland SK. Inverse association of overweight and breastfeeding in 9 to 10-y-old children in Germany. Int J Obesity 2001;25:1644-50
7. Locke R. Preventing obesity: the breastmilk-leptin connection. Acta Paediatr 2002;91:891-6
8. Armstrong J, Reilly JJ, and the Child Health Information Team. Breastfeeding and lowering the risk of childhood obesity. Lancet 2002;359:2003-4
9. Toschke AM, Vignerova J, Lhotska L, Osancova K, Koletzko B, von Kries R. Overweight and obesity in 6 to 14 year old Czech children in 1991: protective effect of breastfeeding. J Pediatr 2002;141:764-9
10. Gillman MW. Breastfeeding and obesity. J Pediatr 2002;141:749-50 (editorial)
11. Savino F, Costamagna M, Prino A, Oggero R, Silvestro L. Leptin levels in breastfed and formula-fed infants. Acta Paediatr 2002;91:897-902
12. Singhal A, Farooqi IS, O’Rahilly S, et al. Early nutrition and leptin concentrations in later life. Am J Clin Nutrition 2002;75:993-9
13. Armstrong J, Reilly JJ, et al. Breastfeeding and lowering the risk of childhood obesity. Lancet 2002;359:2003-4
14. Bergmann KE, Bermann RL, von Kries R, Böhm O, Richter R, Dudenhausen JW, Wahn U. Early determinants of childhood overweight and adiposity in a birth cohort study: role of breastfeeding. Int J Obesity 2003;27:162-72
15. Frye C, Heinrich J. Trends and predictors of overweight and obesity in East German children. Int J Obesity 2003;27:963-9
16. Whitaker RC. Obesity prevention in pediatric primary care. Four Behaviors to target. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2003;157:725-7 (editorial)
17. Parsons TJ, Power C, Manor O. Infant feeding and obesity through the lifecourse. Arch Dis Child 2003;88:703-4
18. Grummer-Strawn LM, Mei Z. Does breastfeeding protect against pediatric overweight? Analysis of longitudinal data from the centers for disease control and prevention pediatric nutrition surveillance system. Pediatrics 2004;113:e81
www.pediatric.org/cgi/content/full/113/2/e81
19. Arenz S, Rückerl R, Koletzko B, von Kries R. Breastfeeding and childhood obesity—a systematic review. Int J Obesity 2004;?vol. (article available on request)
20. Kramer MS, Guo T, Platt RW, et al. Feeding effects on growth during infancy. J Pediatr 2004;145:600-5
21. Savino F, Fissore MF, Grassino EC, et al.Ghrelin, leptin and IGF-1 levels in breastfed and formula fed infants in the first years of life. Acta Paediatrica 2005;94:531-7
22. Agostino, C. Ghrelin, leptin and the neurometabolic axis of breastfed and formula fed infants (commentary). Acta Paediatrica 2005;94:523-5
23. Stettler N, Stallings VA, Troxel AB, et al. Weight gain in the first week of life and overweight in adulthood. Circulation 2005;111:1897-1903
24. Burke V, Belin LJ, Simmer K, et al. Breastfeeding and overweight: Longitudinal analysis in an Australian birth cohort. J Pediatr 2005;147:56-61
25. Harder T, Bergmann R, Kallischnigg G, Plagemann A. Duration of breastfeeding and risk of overweight: A meta-analysis. Am J Epidemiol 2005;162 (5):1-7

Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS):

SIDS-1: Mitchell EA, Scragg R, Stewart AW, Becroft DMO, Taylor BJ, For RPK, et al. Results from the first year of the New Zealand cot death study. NZ Med J 1991;104:71-6
SIDS-2: Alm B, Weenergren G, Norvenius SG, et al. Breastfeeding and the sudden infant death syndrome in Scandinavia 1992-95. Arch Dis Child 2002;86:400-2

Type 1 Diabetes

Working Group on Cow’s Milk Protein and Diabetes Mellitus of the American Academy of Pediatrics. Infant feeding practices and their possible relationship to the etiology of diabetes mellitus. Pediatrics 1994;94:752-4
JD-1: Karjalainen J, Martin JM, Knip M, Ilonen J, Robinson BH, Savilahti E, et al. A bovine albumin peptide as a possible trigger of insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. N Eng J Med 1992;327:302-7 (Editorial: 1992:327:348-9)
JD-2: Mayer EJ, Hamman RF, Gay EC, Lezotte DC, Savitz DA, Klingensmith J. Reduced risk of IDDM among breastfed children. Diabetes 1988;37:1625-32
JD-3: Virtanen SM, Räsänen L, Ylönen K, Aro A, Clayton D, Langlholz B, et al. Early introduction of dairy products associated with increased risk of IDDM in Finnish children. Diabetes 1993;42:1786-90
JD-4: Virtanen SM, Räsänen L, Aro A, Lindström J, Sippola H, Lounamaa R, et al. Infant feeding in Finnish children JD-5: Gerstein HC. Cow’s milk exposure and type I diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care 1994;17:13-9
JD-6: Kostraba JN, Cruickshanks KJ, Lawler-Heavner J, Jobim LF, Rewers MJ, Gay EC, et al. Early exposure to cow’s milk and solid foods in infancy, genetic predisposition, and risk of IDDM. Diabetes 1993;42:288-95
JD-7: Pérez-Bravo F, Carrasco E, Gutierrez-López MD, Martínez MT, López G, García de los Rios M. Genetic predisposition and environmental factors leading to the development of insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus in Chilean children. J Mol Med 1996;74:105-9
JD-8: Gimeno SGA, De Souza JMP. IDDM and milk consumption. Diabetes Care 1997;20:1256-60
JD-9: Hammond-McKibbon D, Karges W, Gaedigk R, Dosch H-M. Immunological mechanisms that link cow milk protein and insulin dependent diabetes: a synopsis. Can J Allergy and Clin Immunol 1997;2:136-46
JD-10: Shehadeh N. Gelertner L, Blazer S, Perlman R, Solovachik L, Etzioni A. Importance of insulin content in infant diet: suggestion for a new infant formula. Acta Paediatrica 2001;90:93-5
JD-11: Sadauskaite-Kuehne V, Ludvigsson J, Padaiga, Z. Longer breastfeeding is an independent protective factor against development of type 1 diabetes mellitus in childhood. Diabetes/Metabolism Research and Reviews. 2004;20:150-7
JD-12: Visalli N, Sebastiani L, Adorisio E, et al. Environmental risk factors for type 1 diabetes in Rome and province. Arch Dis Child 2003;88:695-8
JD-13: Kimpimäki T, Erkkola M, Korhonen S, et al. Short term exclusive breastfeeding predisposes young children with increased genetic risk of type 1 diabetes to progressive beta-cell autoimmunity. Diabetologia 2001;44:63-69
JD-14: Wahlberg, O. et al. Dietary risk factors for the emergence of Type 1 diabetes-related autoantibodies in 2½-year-old Swedish children. Br J Nutr 2006; 95:603-8.

Type 2 Diabetes:

IID: Pettitt DJ, Forman MR, Hanson RL, Knowler WC, Bennett PH. Breastfeeding and incidence of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus in Pima Indians. Lancet 1997;350:166-8

IID: Young TK, Martens PJ, Taback SP, et al. Type 2 diabetes in Children: prenatal and early infancy risk factors among Native Canadians. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2002;156:651-55

IID: Ravelli ACJ, van der Meulen JHP, Osmond C, et al. Infant feeding and adult glucose tolerance, lipid profile, blood pressure and obesity. Arch Dis Child 2000;82:248-52

IID: Stuebe A, Rich-Edwards JW, Willett WC, et al. Duration of Lactation and Incidence of Diabetes type 2. JAMA 2005;294:2601-10

IID: Owen CG, Martin RM, Whincup PH, et al. Does breastfeeding influence risk of type 2 diabetes in later life? A quantitative analysis of published evidence. Am J Clin Nutr 2006;84:1043-54

Cow milk Allergy and Intolerance:

CM-1: Høst A. Importance of the first meal on the development of cow’s milk allergy and intolerance. Allergy Proc 1991;12:227-32

Respiratory Illness:

RI-1: Pullan CR, Toms GL, Martin AJ, Gardner PS, Webb JKG, Appleton DR. Breastfeeding and respiratory syncytial virus infection. Br Med J 1980;281:1034-6
RI-2: Chiba Y, Minagawa T, Mito K, Nakane A, Suga K, Honjo T, Nakao T. Effect of breastfeeding on responses of systemic interferon and virus-specific lymphocyte transformation with respiratory syncytial virus infection. J Med Virology 1987;21:7-14
RI-3: Wright AL, Holberg CJ, Martinez FD, Morgan WJ, Taussig LM. Breastfeeding and lower respiratory tract illness in the first year of life. Br Med J 1989;299:946-9
RI-4: Porro E, Indinnimeo L, Antognoni G, Midulla F, Criscione S. Early wheezing and breastfeeding. J Asthma 1993;30:23-8
RI-5: Burr ML, Limb ES, Maguire JM, Amarah L, Eldridge BA, Layzell JCM, Merret TG. Infant feeding, wheezing, and allergy: a prospective study. Arch Dis Child 1993;68:724-28
RI-6: Pisacane A, Graziano L, Zona G, Granata G, Dolezalova H, Cafiero M, et al. Breastfeeding and acute lower respiratory infection. Acta Pædiatr 1994;83:714-18
RI-7: Beaudry M, Dufour R, Marcoux S. Relation between infant feeding and infections during the first six months of life. J Pediatr 1995;126:191-7
RI-8: Okamoto Y, Ogra PL. Antiviral factors in human milk: implications in respiratory syncytial virus infection. Acta Pædiatr Scand Suppl 1989;351:137-43
RI-9: Downham MAPS, Scott R, Sims DG, Webb JKG, Gardner PS. Breastfeeding protects against respiratory syncytial virus infections. Br Med J 1976;2:274-6
RI-10: Wright AL, Holberg CJ, Taussig LM, Martinez FD. Relationship of infant feeding to recurrent wheezing at age 6 years. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 1995;149:758-63
RI-11: Yue Chen. Synergistic effect of passive smoking and artificial feeding on hospitalization for respiratory illness in early childhood. Chest 1989;95:1004-07
RI-12: Wilson AC, Forsyth JS, Greene SA, Irvine L, Hau C, Howie PW. Relation of infant diet to childhood health: seven year followup of cohort of children in Dundee infant feeding study. Br Med J 1998;316:21-5 (also shows higher blood pressure in formula fed children)
RI-13: Oddy WH, Holt PG, Sly PD, Read AW, Landau LI, Stanley FJ, Kendall GE, Burton PR. Association between breastfeeding and asthma in 6 year old children: findings of a prospective birth cohort study. Br Med J 1999;319:815-9
RI-14: César JA, Victora CG, Barros FC, Santos IS, Flores JA. Impact of breastfeeding on admission for pneumonia during postneonatal period in Brazil: nested case-control study. Br Med J 1999;318:1316-20
RI-15: Pisacane A, Impagliazzo N, De Caprio C, Criscuolo L, Inglese A, da Silva MCMP. Breastfeeding and tonsillectomy. Br Med J 1996;?:?
RI-16: López-Alarcón M, Villalpando S, Fajardo A. Breastfeeding lowers the frequency and duration of acute respiratory infection and diarrhea in infants under 6 months of age. J Nutr 1997;127:436-43
RI-17: Gdlavevich M, Minouni D, Minouni M. Breastfeeding and the risk of bronchial asthma in childhood: a systematic review with meta-analysis of prospective studies. J Pediatr 2001;139:261-6
RI-18: Bachrach VRG, Schwarz E, Bachrach LR. Breastfeeding and the risk of hospitalization for respiratory disease in infancy. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2003;157:237-243
RI-19: Oddy WH, Sly PD, de Klerk NH, et al. Breastfeeding and respiratory morbidity in infancy: a birth cohort study. Arch Dis Child 2003;88:224-8
RI-20: Dell S, To T. Breastfeeding and asthma in young children. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2001;155:1261-5

Otitis Media:

OM-1: Saarinen UM. Prolonged breastfeeding as prophylaxis for recurrent otitis media. Acta Pediatr Scand 1982;71:567-71
OM-2: Teele DW, Klein JO, Rosner B. Epidemiology of otitis media during the first seven years of life in children in greater Boston: a prospective cohort study. J Infect Dis 1989;160:83-94
OM-3: Duncan B, Ey J, Holberg CJ, Wright AL, Martinez FD, Taussig LJ. Exclusive breastfeeding for at least 4 months protects against otitis media. Pediatrics 1993;91:867-72
OM-4: Owen MJ, Baldwin CD, Swank PR, Pannu AK, Johnson DL, Howie VM. Relation of infant feeding practices, cigarette smoke exposure and group child care to the onset and duration of otitis media with effusion in the first two years of life. J Pediatr 1993;123:702-11
OM-5: Harabuchi Y, Faden H, Yamanaka N, Duffy L, Wolf J, Krystofik D. Human milk secretory IgA antibody to nontypeable Hæmophilus influenzæ: Possible protective effects against nasopharyngeal colonization. J Pediatr 1994;124:193-8
OM-6: Aniansson G, Alm B, Andersson B, Håkansson A, Larsson P, Nylén O, et al. A prospective cohort study on breastfeeding and otitis media in Swedish infants. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1994;13:183-8
OM-7: Paradise JL, Elster BA, Tan L. Evidence in infants with cleft palate that breast milk protects against otitis media. Pediatrics 1994;94:853-60
OM-8: Sassen ML, Brand R, Grote JJ. Breastfeeding and acute otitis media. Am J Otolaryn 1994;15:351-7
OM-9: Dewey KG, Heinig J, Nommsen-Rivers LA. Differences in morbidity between breastfed and formula fed infants. J Pediatr 1995;126:696-702 (risk also increased in FF infant for diarrhea)
OM-10: Scariati PD, Grummer-Strawn LM, Fein SB. A longitudinal analysis of infant morbidity and the extent of breastfeeding in the United States. Pediatrics 1997;99:e5

Risks for the premature baby:

P-1: Lucas A, Cole TJ. Breastmilk and neonatal necrotizing enterocolitis. Lancet 1990;336:1519-23
P-2: El-Mohandes AE, Picard MB, Simmens SJ, Keiser JF. Use of human milk in the intesive care nursery decreases the incidence of nosocomial sepsis. J Perinatol 1997;17:130-4
P-3: Daniels L, Gibson R, Simmer K. Selenium status of preterm infants: the effect of postnatal age and method of feeding. Acta Pædiatr 1997;86:281-8 (M:23)
P-4: Uauy RD, Birch DG, Birch EE, Tyson JE, Hoffman DR. Effect of dietary omega-3 fatty acids on retinal function of very low birth weight neonates. Pediatr Res 1990;28:485-92 (M:18)
P-5: Lucas A, Morley R, Cole TJ, Lister G, Leeson-Payne C. Breastmilk and subsequent intelligence quotient in children born preterm. Lancet 1992;339:261-4 (CD: 3)
P-6: Bishop NJ, Dahlenburg SL, Fewtrell MS, Morley R, Lucas A. Early diet of preterm infants and bone mineralization at age five years. Acta Paediatr 1996;85:230-6
P-7: Carlson SE, Rhodes PG, Ferguson MG. Docosahexaenoic acid status of preterm infants at birth and following feeding with human milk or formula. Am J Clin Nutr 1986;44:798-804
P-8: Foreman-van Drongelen MMHP, van Houwelingen AC, Kester ADM, Hasaart THM, Blanco CE, Hornstra G. Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in preterm infants: status at birth and its influence on postnatal levels. J Pediatr 1997;126:611-8
P-9: Bier JB, Ferguson AE, Morales Y, Liebling JA, Oh W, Vohr BR. Breastfeeding infants who were extremely low birth weight. Pediatrics 1997;100:p e3
P-10: Morley R, Cole TJ, Powell R, Lucas A. Mother’s choice to provide breastmilk and developmental outcome. Arch Dis Child 1988;63:1382-5
P-11: Singhal A, Cole T, Lucas A. Early nutrition in preterm infants and later blood pressure: two cohorts after randomised trials. Lancet 2001;357:413-9
P-12: Singhal A, Cole T, Lucas A. Breastmilk feeding and lipoprotein profile in adolescents born preterm: followup of a prospective randomised study. Lancet 2004;363:1571-8
e-1: Felman R, Eidelman A. Direct and indirect effects of breastmilk on neurobehavioral and cognitive development of premature infants. Dev Psychobiol 2003;43:109-119
P-13: McGuire W, Anthony MW. Donor human milk versus formula for preventing necrotising enterocolitis in preterm infants: systematic review. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2003;88:F11-F14
P-14: Bier JB, Oliver T, Ferguson A, Vohr BR. Human milk reduces outpatient upper respiratory symptoms in premature infants during their first year of life. J Perinatology 2002;22:354-9

Childhood Cancer:

CC-1: Schwartzbaum JA, George SL, Pratt CB, Davis B. An exploratory study of environmental and medical factors potentially related to childhood cancer. Med pediatr Oncol 1991;19:115-21
CC-2: Davis MK, Savitz DA. Graubard BI. Infant feeding and childhood cancer. Lancet 1988;2:365-8
CC-3: Freudenheim JL, Marshall JR, Graham S, Laughlin R, Vena JE, Bandera E, et al. Exposure to breastmilk in infancy and the risk of breast cancer. Epidemiology 1994;5:324-31
CC-4: Shu XO, Linet MS, Steinbuch M, Wen WQ, Buckley JD, Neglia JP, Potter JD et al. Breastfeeding and the risk of childhood acute leukemia. J Nat Cancer Institute 1999;91:1765-72
CC-5: Davis MK. Review of the evidence for an association between Infant feeding and childhood cancer. Int J Cancer 1998;Supplement 11:29-33
CC-6: Dundaroz R, Aydin HI, Ulucan H, et al. Preliminary study on DNA damage in non breastfed infants. Pediatrics Int 2002;44:127-130

Gastrointestinal Disease and Infections:

GI-1: Koletzko S, Sherman P, Corey M, Griffiths A, Smith C. Role of infant feeding practices in the developement of Crohn’s disease in childhood. Br Med J 1989;298:1617-8
GI-2: Greco L, Auricchio S, Mayer M, Grimaldi M. Case control study on nutritional risk factors in celiac disease. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 1988;7:395-8
GI-3: Duffy LC, Byers TE, Riepenhoff-Talty M, La Scolea L, Zielezny M, Ogra PL. The effects of infant feeding on rotavirus-induced gastroenteritis. A prospective study. Am J Pub Health 1986;76:259-63
GI-4: Hanson LA, Lindquist B, Hofvander Y, Zetterstrom R. Breastfeeding as a protection against gastroenteritis and other infections. Acta Pediatr Scand 1985;74:641-2
GI-5: Ruiz-Palacios GM, Calva JJ, Pickering LK, Lopez-Vidal Y, Volkow P, Pezzarossi H, et al. Protection of breastfed infants against Campylobacter diarrhea by antibodies in human milk. J Pediatr 1990;116:707-13
GI-6: Cruz JR, Gil L, Cano F, Caceres P, Pareja G. Breastmilk anti-Escherichia coli heat labile toxin IgA antibodies protect against toxin-induced infantile diarrhea. Acta Pediatr Scand 1988;77:658-62
GI-7: Gillin FD, Reiner DS, Wang C-S. Human milk kills parasitic intestinal protozoa. Science 1983;221:1290-2
GI-8: France GL, Marmer DJ, Steele RW. Breastfeeding and Salmonella infection. Am J Dis Child 1980;134:147-52
GI-9: Haffejee IE. Cow’s milk-based formula, human milk and soya feeds in acute infantile diarrhea: A therapeutic trial. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 1990;10:193-8
GI-10: Lerman Y, Slepon R, Cohen D. Epidemiology of acute diarrheal diseases in children in a high standard of living rural settlement in Israel. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1994;13:116-22
GI-11: Howie PW, Forsyth JS, Ogston SA, Clark A, Du V Florey C. Protective effect of breastfeeding against infection. Br Med J 1990;300:11-6
GI-12: Duffy LC, Riepenhoff-Talty M, Byers TE, La Scolea LJ, Zielezny MA, Dryja DM et al. Modulation of rotavirum enteritis during breastfeeding. Am J Dis Child 1986;140:1164-8
GI-13: Haddock RL, Cousens SN, Guzman CC. Infant diet and salmonellosis. Am J Pub Health 1991;81:997-1000
GI-14: Scariati PD, Grummer-Strawn LM, Fein SB. A longitudinal analysis of infant morbidity and the extent of breastfeeding in the United States. Pediatrics 1997;99, June 1997;e5 (also for otitis media)
GI-15: Heacock HJ, Jeffery HE, BAker JL, Page M. Influence of breast versus formula milk on physiological gastroesophageal reflux In healthy, newborn Infants. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 1992:14:41-6
GI-16: Kramer MS, Chalmers B, Hodnett ED, Sevkovskaya Z, Dzikovich I, Shapiro S, et al. Promotion of breastfeeding intervention trial. JAMA 2001;285:413-20 (also shows less eczema) (study shows that baby friendly Interventions do work)
GI-17: Ivarsson A, Hernell O, Stenlund H, Persson LA. Breastfeeding protects against celiac disease. Am J Clin Nutr 2002;75:914-21
GI-18: Klement E, Cohen RV, Boxman J, et al. Breastfeeding and risk of inflammatory bowel disease: a systematic review with meta-analysis. Am J Clin Nutr 2004;80:1342-52
GI-19: Quigley, M. A. et al. How protective is breastfeeding against diarrhoeal disease in infants in 1990s England? A case-control study. Arch Dis Child 2006; 91:245-50.

Urinary Tract Infection:

UT-1: Pisacane A, Graziano L, Mazzarella G, Scarpellino B, Zona G. Breastfeeding and urinary tract infection. J Pediatr 1992;120:87-9
UT-2: Marild S, Hansson S, Jodal U, Odén A, Svedberg K. Protective effect of breastfeeding against urinary tract infection. Acta Paediatr 2004;93:164-8

Malocclusion:

MA-1: Labbock MH, Hendershot GE. Does breastfeeding protect against malocclusion? An analysis of the 1981 child health supplement to the national health interview survey. Am J Prev Med 1987;3:227-32
MA-2: Palmer B. The influence of breastfeeding on the development of the oral cavity: A commentary. J Hum Lact 1998;14:93-8
MA-3: Viggian D, Fasano D, Monaco G, Strohmenger L. Breastfeeding, bottle feeding and non-nutritive sucking; effects on occlusion in deciduous dentition. Arch Dis Child 2004;89:1121-3

Formula as a heavy metal cocktail:

HM-1: Koo WWK, Kaplan LA, Krug-Wispe SK. Aluminum contamination of infant formulas. J Parenteral Enteral Nutrition 1988;12:170-3
HM-2: Davidsson L, Cederblad Å, Lönnerdal B, Sandström B. Manganese absorption from human milk, cow’s milk and infant formulas in humans. Am J Dis Child 1989;143:823-7
HM-3: Dabeka RW, McKenzie AD. Lead and cadmium levels in commercial infant foods and dietary intake by infants 0-1 year old. Food Additives and Contaminants 1988;5:333-42

Other Contamination due to bottle feeding:

C-1: Mytjens HL, Roelofs-Willemse H, Jaspar GHJ. Quality of powdered substitutes for breastmilk with regard to members of the family Enterobacteriaceæ. J Clin Microbiol 1988;26:743-6
C-2: Biering G, Karlsson S, Clark NC, Jonsdottir KE, Ludvigsson P, Steingrimsson O. Three cases of neonatal meningitis caused by Enterobacter sakazakii in powdered milk. J Clin Microbiol 1989;27:2054-6
C-3: Westin JB. Ingestion of carcinogenic N-nitrosamines by infants and children. Arch Environmental Health 1990;45:359-63
C-4: Schwarz KB, Cox JM, Sharma S, Clement L, Witter F, Abbey H, et al. Prooxidant effects of maternal smoking and formula In newborn Infants. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 1997;24:68-74

Allergy:

A-1: Lucas A, Brooke OG, Morley R, Cole TJ, Bamford MF. Early diet of preterm infants and development of allergic or atopic disease: randomized prospective study. Br Med J 1990;300:837-40
A-2: Kajosaari M, Saarinen UM. Prophylaxis of atopic disease by six months’ total solid food elimination. Acta Pediatr Scand 1983;72:411-14
A-3: Ellis MH, Short JA, Heiner DC. Anaphylaxis after ingestion of a recently introduced hydrolyzed whey protein protein formula. J Pediatr 1991;118:74-7
A-4: Saarinen UM, Kajosaari M. Breastfeeding as prophylaxis against atopic disease: prospective follow-up study until 17 years old. Lancet 1995;346:1065-69
A-5: Saylor JD, Bahna SL. Anaphylaxis to casein hydrolysate formula. J Pediatr 1991;118:71-4
A-6: Marini A, Agosti M, Motta G, Mosca F. Effects of a dietary and environmental prevention programme on the incidence of allergic symptoms in high atopic risk infants: three years’ followup. Acta Pædiatr 1996;Suppl 414 vol 85:1-19
A-7: Wright AL, Holberg CJ, Martinez FD, Halonen M, Morgan W, Taussig LM. Epidemiology of physician diagnosed allergic rhinitis In childhood. Pediatrics 1994:94:895-901
A-8: Bloch AM, Mimouni D, Minouni M, Gdalevich M. Does breastfeeding protect against allergic rhinitis during childhood? A meta-analysis of protective studies. Acta Paediatr 2002;91:275-9
A-9: Kull I, Wickman M, Lilja G, Nordvall SL, Pershagen G. Breastfeeding and allergic diseases in infants—a prospective birth cohort study. Arch Dis Child 2002;85:478-81

Cardiovascular Risks:

M-3: Kramer MS. Do breastfeeding and delayed introduction of solid foods protect against subsequent obesity? J Pediatr 1981;98:883-7
M-13: Osborn GR. Stages in development of coronary disease observed from 1,500 young subjects. Relationship of hypotension and infant feeding to ætiology. Watson Smith Lecture, delivered to the Royal College of Physicians of London, January 11, 1965
M13a: Bergström E, Hernell O, Persson LÅ, Vessby B. Serum lipid values in adolescents are related to family history, infant feeding, and physical growth. Atherosclerosis 1995;117:1-13
M-25: Routi T, Rönnemaa T, Lapinleimu H, Salo P, Viikari J, Leino A, et al. Effect of weaning on serum lipoprotein (a) concentration: the STRIP baby study. Pediatric Research 1995;38:522-27
M-26: Bergströme E, Hernell O, Persson LÅ, Vessby B. Serum lipid values in adolescents are related to family history, infant feeding and physical growth. Atherosclerosis 1995;117:1-13
M-27: Von Kries R, Sauerwald T, von Mutius E, Barnert D, Grunert V, von Voss H.
Breastfeeding and obesity: cross sectional study. Br Med J 1999;319:147-50 (a study of over 13, 000 children)
M-32: Tulldahl J, Pettersson K, Andersson SW, Hulthén. Mode of Infant feeding and achieved growth In adolescence: early feeding patterns In relation to growth and body composition In adolescence. Obesity Research 1999;7:431-7
M-35: Gillman MW, Rifas-Shiman SL, Camargo CA, Berkey CS, Frasier AL, Rockett HRH, et al. Risk of overweight among adolescents who were breastfed as infants. J Am Med Assoc 2001;285:2461-7 (a study of over 15, 000 children) (Editorial by WH Dietz, 2506-7)
P-11: Singhal A, Cole T, Lucas A. Early nutrition in preterm infants and later blood pressure: two cohorts after randomised trials. Lancet 2001;357:413-9
M-36: Toschke AM, Vignerova J, Lhotska L, et al. Overweight and obesity in 6- to 14- year old Czech children in 1991: Protective effect of breastfeeding. J Pediatr 2002;141:764-9 (a study of over 33,000 children).
C-1: Martin RM, Ness AR, Gunnell D, Emmett PE, Smith GD for the ALSPAC Study Team. Does breastfeeding in infancy lower blood pressure in children. Circulation 2004;109:1259-66
P-13: Singhal A, Cole T, Lucas A. Breastmilk feeding and lipoprotein profile in adolescents born preterm: followup of a prospective randomised study. Lancet 2004;363:1571-8
M-39: Ravelli ACJ, van der Meulen JHP, Osmond C, et al. Infant feeding and adult glucose tolerance, lipid profile, blood pressure and obesity. Arch Dis Child 2000;82:248-52
M-40: Plancoulaine S, Charles MA, Lafay L, et al. Infant feeding patterns are related to blood cholesterol concentration in prepubertal children aged 5-11 y: The Fleurbaix-Laventie Ville Santé study. Eur J Clin Nutr 2000;54:114-119
M-41: Lawlor DA, Riddoch CJ, Page AS, et al. Infant feeding and components of the metabolic syndrome: findings from the European youth heart study. Arch Dis Child 2005;90:582-8

Breastfeeding and smoking is better than not breastfeeding and smoking

SB-1: Batstra L, Neeleman J, Hadders-Algra M. Can breastfeeding modify the adverse effects of smoking during pregnancy on the child’s cognitive development. J Epidemiol Community Health 2003;57:403-4
SB-2: Woodward A, Douglas R, Graham N, Miles H. Acute respiratory illness in Adelaide children: breast feeding modifies the effect of passive smoking. J Epidemiol Community Health 1990;44:224-30.
SB-3: Nafstad P, Jaakkola JJ, Hagen JA, Botten G, Kongerud J. Breastfeeding, maternal smoking and lower respiratory tract infections. Eur Respir J 1996;9:2623-9
SB-4: Chen Y. Synergistic effect of passive smoking and articial feeding on hospitalization for respiratory illness in early childhood. Chest 1989;95:1004-7
Miscellaneous:

M-1: McJunkin JE, Bithoney WG, McCormick MC. Errors in formula concentration in an outpatient population. J Pediatr 1987;111:848-50
M-1a: Abrams CAL, Phillips LL, Berkowitz C, Blacket PR, Priebe CJ. Hazards of overconcentrated milk formula. JAMA 1975;232:1136-40
M-1b: Potur AH, Kalmaz N. An investigation into feeding errors of 0-4 month old infants. J Trop Pediatr 1995;41:120-2
M-1c: Green HL, Moyer VA. Improper mixing of formula due to reuse of hospital bottles. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 1995;149:97-9
M-1d: Coodin Fj, Gabrielson IW, Addiego JE. Formula fatality. Pediatrics 1971;47:438-9
M-1e: Wilcox DT, Fiorello AB, Glick PL. Hypovolemic shock and intestinal ischemia: a preventable complication of incomplete formula labeling. J Pediatr 1993;122:103-4
M-2: Specker BL, Tsang RC, Ho ML, Landi TM, Gratton TL. Low serum calcium and high parathyroid hormone levels in neonates fed “humanized” cow’s milk-based formula. Am J Dis Child 1991;145:941-5
M2a: Jochum F, Fuchs A, Menzel H, Lombeck I. Selenium in German infants fed breastmilk or different formulas. Acta Paediatr 1995;84:859-62
M-3: Kramer MS. Do breastfeeding and delayed introduction of solid foods protect against subsequent obesity? J Pediatr 1981;98:883-7
M-4: Dick G. The etiology of multiple sclerosis. Proc Roy Soc Med. 1976;69:611-5
M-4b: Pisacane A, Impagliazzo N, Russo M, Valiani R, Mandarini A, Florio C, Vivo P. Breastfeeding and multiple sclerosis. Br Med J 1994;308:1411-2
M-5: Birch E, Birch D, Hoffman D, Hale L, Everett M, Uauy R. Breastfeeding and optimal visual development. J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus 1993;30:33-8
M-6: Makrides M, Simmer K, Googin M, Gibson RA. Erythrocyte docosahexaenoic acid correlates with the visual response of healthy, term infants. Pediatr Res 1993;34:425-7
M-7: Sullivan SA, Birch LL. Infant dietary experience and acceptance of solid foods. Pediatrics 1994;93:271-77
M-8: Cochi SL, Fleming DW, Hightower AW, Limpakarnjanarat K, Facklam RR, Smith JD, et al. Primary invasive Hæmophilus influenzæ type b disease: A population-based assessment of risk factors. J Pediatr 1986;108:887-96
M-9: Arnold C, Makintube S, Istre GR. Day Care Attendance and other risk factors for invasive Hæmophilus influenzæ type b disease. Am J Epidemiol 1993;138:333-40
M-9a: Takala AK, Eskola J, Palmgren J, Rönnberg P-R, Kela E, Rekola P, Mäkelä PH. Risk factors of invasive Haemophilus influenzae type b disease among children of Finland. J Pediatr 1989;115:694-701
M-10: Michaelsen KM, Johansen JS, Samuelson G, Price PA, Christiansen C, Skakkebæk NE. Serum bone Gla protein (BGP, Osteocalcin) in infants: Values positively correlated with human milk intake. Mechanisms Regulating Lactation and Infant Nutrient Utilization. (Picciano MF, Lönnerdal B, editors). Volume 15 of Contemporary Issues in Clinical Nutrition, pages 419-23.
M-11: Jones EG, Matheny RJ. Relationship between infant feeding and exclusion rate from child care because of illness. J Am Dietetic Assoc 1993;93:809-11
M-12: MacFarlane PI, Miller V. Human milk in the management of protracted diarrhœa of infancy. Arch Dis Child 1984;59, 260-65
M-13: Osborn GR. Stages in development of coronary disease observed from 1,500 young subjects. Relationship of hypotension and infant feeding to ætiology. Watson Smith Lecture, delivered to the Royal College of Physicians of London, January 11, 1965.
M13a: Bergström E, Hernell O, Persson LÅ, Vessby B. Serum lipid values in adolescents are related to family history, infant feeding, and physical growth. Atherosclerosis 1995;117:1-13
M-14: Keating JP, Schears GJ, Dodge PR. Oral water intoxication in infants. Am J Dis Child 1991;145:985-90
M-14a: Bruce RC, Kiegman RM. Hyponatremic seizures secondary to oral water intoxication in infancy: association wiht commercial bottled drinking water. Pediatrics 1997;100; p e4
M-15: Finberg L. Water intoxication. (editorial). Am J Dis Child 1991;145:981-2
M-16: Shannon MW, Graef JW. Lead intoxication in infancy. Pediatrics 1992;89:87-90
M-17: Nako Y, Fukushima N, Tomomasa T, Nagashima K. Hypervitaminosis D after prolonged feeding with a premature formula. Pediatrics 1993;92:862-3
M-18: Uauy RD, Birch DG, Birch EE, Tyson JE, Hoffman DR. Effect of dietary omega-3 fatty acids on retinal function of very low birth weight neonates. Pediatr Res 1990;28:485-92
M-19: Hahn-Zoric M, Fulconis F, Minoli I, Moro G, Carlsson B, Böttiger M, et al. Antibody responses to parenteral and oral vaccines are impaired by conventional and low protein formulas as compared to breastfeeding. Acta Pædiatr Scand 1990;79:1137-42
M-20: Arnon SS, Damus K, Thompson B, Midura TF, Chin J. Protective role of human milk against sudden death from infant botulism. J Pediatr 1982;100:568-73
M-21: Mason T, Rabinovich E, Fredrickson DD, Amoroso K, Reed AM, Stein LD, et al. Breastfeeding and the development of juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. J Rheumatol 1995;22:1166-70
M-22: Hasselbalch H, Jeppesen DL, Engelmann MDM, Fleischer-Michaelson K, Nielson MB. Decreased thymus size in formula-fed compared with breastfed infants. Acta Pædiatr 1996;85:1029-32
M-22a: Hasselbalch H, Engelmann MDM, Ersbøll AK, Jeppesen DL, Fleischer-Michaelson K. Breastfeeding Influences thymic size In late Infancy. Eur J Pediatr 1999;158:964-7
M-23: Daniels L, Gibson R, Simmer K. Selenium status of preterm infants: the effect of postnatal age and method of feeding. Acta Pædiatr 1997;86:281-8
M-24: Pettitt DJ, Forman MR, Hanson RL, Knowler WC, Bennett PH. Breastfeeding and incidence of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus in Pima Indians. Lancet 1997;350:166-8
M-25: Routi T, Rönnemaa T, Lapinleimu H, Salo P, Viikari J, Leino A, et al. Effect of weaning on serum lipoprotein (a) concentration: the STRIP baby study. Pediatric Research 1995;38:522-27
M-26: Bergströme E, Hernell O, Persson LÅ, Vessby B. Serum lipid values in adolescents are related to family history, infant feeding and physical growth. Atherosclerosis 1995;117:1-13
M-27: Von Kries R, Sauerwald T, von Mutius E, Barnert D, Grunert V, von Voss H.
Breastfeeding and obesity: cross sectional study. Br Med J 1999;319:147-50
M-28: Håkansson A, Zhivotovsky B, Orrenius S, Sabharwal H. Apoptosis induced by a human milk protein. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1995;92:8064-68
M-29: Håkansson A, Andréasson J, Zhivotovsky B, Karpman D, Orrenius S, Svanborg C. Multimeric alpha lactalbumin from human milk induces apoptosis through a direct effect on cell nuclei. Exps Cell Research 1999;246:451-60
M-30: Fitzpatrick M, Mitchell K, et al. Soy formulas and the effects of Isoflavones on the thyroid NZ Med J 2000;113:?pages
M-31: Lambertina W, Freni-Titulaer MD, Cordero JF, Haddock L, Lebron G, Martinez R, Mills JL. Premature Thelarche In Puerto Rico. Am J Dis Child 1986;140:1263-7
M-32: Tulldahl J, Pettersson K, Andersson SW, Hulthén. Mode of Infant feeding and achieved growth In adolescence: early feeding patterns In relation to growth and body composition In adolescence. Obesity Research 1999;7:431-7
M-33: Erickson PR, Mazhari E. Investigation of the role of human breastmilk in caries development. Pediatr Dent 1999;21:86-90
M-34: Setchell KDR, Zimmer-Nechmias L, Cai J, Heubi JE. Exposure of infants to phyto-oestrogens from soy-based infant formula. Lancet 1997;350:23-27
M-35: Gillman MW, Rifas-Shiman SL, Camargo CA, Berkey CS, Frasier AL, Rockett HRH, et al. Risk of overweight among adolescents who were breastfed as infants. J Am Med Assoc 2001;285:2461-7 (Editorial by WH Dietz, 2506-7)
M-36: Young TK, Martens PJ, Taback SP et al. Type 2 diabetes in Children: prenatal and early infancy risk factors among Native Canadians. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2002;156:651-55
M-37: Jones G, Riley M, Dwyer T. Breastfeeding in early life and bone mass in prepubertal children: a longitudinal study. Osteoporosis Int 2000;11:146-152
M-38: Koo WWK, Hammami M, Margeson DP, et al. Reduced bone mineralization in infants fed palm olein-containing formula: a randomized double blinded, prospective trial. Pediatrics 2003;111:1017-23
M-39: Ravelli ACJ, van der Meulen JHP, Osmond C, et al. Infant feeding and adult glucose tolerance, lipid profile, blood pressure and obesity. Arch Dis Child 2000;82:248-52
M-40: Plancoulaine S, Charles MA, Lafay L, et al. Infant feeding patterns are related to blood cholesterol concentration in prepubertal children aged 5-11 y: The Fleurbaix-Laventie Ville Santé study. Eur J Clin Nutr 2000;54:114-119
M-41: Lawlor DA, Riddoch CJ, Page AS, et al. Infant feeding and components of the metabolic syndrome: findings from the European youth heart study. Arch Dis Child 2005;90:582-8

Breastmilk as “antimicrobial”:

AM-1: Yoshioka H, Ken-ichi I, Fujita K. Development and differences of intestinal flora in the neonatal period in breastfed and bottle fed infants. Pediatrics 1983;72:317-21
AM-2: Hernell O, Ward H, Bläckberg L, Pereira MEA. Killing of Giardia lamblia by human milk lipases: An effect mediated by lipolysis of milk lipids. J Infectious Diseases 1986;153:715-20
AM-3: Andersson B, Porras O, Hanson LA, Lagergård T, Svanborg-Edén C. Inhibition of attachment of Streptococcus pneumoniæ and Hæmophilus influenzæ by human milk and receptor oligosaccharides. J Infectious Diseases 1986;153:232-7
AM-4: Bell LM, Clark HF, Offit PA, Slight PH, Arbeter AM, Plotkin SA. Rotavirus serotype-specific neutralizing activity in human milk. Am J Dis Child 1988;142:275-8
AM-5: Schroten H, Lethen A, Hanisch FG, Plogmann R, Hacker J, Nobis-Bosch R et al. Inhibition of adhesion of S-Fimbriated Escherichia coli to epithelial cells by meconium and feces of breastfed and formula fed newborns: mucins are the major inhibitory component. J Pediatr Gastroentero Nutr 1992;15:150-8
AM-6: Walterspiel JN, Morrow AL, Guerrero ML, Ruiz-Palacios GM, Pickering LK. Secretory anti-Giardia lamblia antibodies in human milk: protective effect against diarrhea. Pediatrics 1994;93:28-31
AM-7: Torres O, Cruz JR. Protection against Campylobacter diarrhea: role of milk IgA antibodies against bacterial surface antigens. Acta Pediatr Scand 1993;82:835-8
AM-8: Pickering LK, Morrow AL, Herrera I, O’Ryan M, Estes MK, Suilliams SE, et al. Effect of maternal rotavirus immunization on milk and serum antibody titers. J Inf Dis 1995;172:723-8
AM-9: Grover M, Giouzeppos O, Shnagl RD, May JT. Effect of human milk protaglandins and lactoferrin on respiratory syncytial virus and rotavirus. Acta Pædiatr 1997;86:315-6
AM-10: Delneri MT, Carbonare SB, Silva MLM, Palmeira P, Carneiro-Sampaio MMS. Inhibition of enteropathogenic Escherichia coli adhesion to EHp-2 cells by colostrum and milk from mothers delivering low birth weight neonates. Eur J Pediatr 1997;156:493-8

Risks to the Mother

Ovarian Cancer:

OC-1: Hartge P, Schiffman MH, Hoover R, McGowan L, Lesher L, Norris HJ. A case control study of epithelial ovarian cancer. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1989;161:10-6
OC-2: Gwinn ML, Lee NC, Rhodes PH, Layde PM, Rubin GL. Pregnancy, breastfeeding and oral contraceptives and the risk of epithelial ovarian cancer. J Clin Epidemiol 1990;43:559-68
OC-3: Rosenblatt KA, Thomas DB, and the WHO collaborative study of neoplasia and steroid contraceptives. Lactation and the risk of epithelial ovarian cancer. International J Epidemiol 1993;22:192-7
OC-4: Tung K-H, Good man MT, Wu AH, et al. Reproductive factors and epithial ovarian cancer risk by histological type. A multiethnic case controled study. Am J Epidemiol 2003;158:629-38
OC-5: Purdie DM, Siskind V, Bain CJ, et al. Reproduction related risk factors for mucinous and nonmucinous epithelial ovarian cancer. Am J Epidemiol 2001;153:860-4
OC-6: Titus-Erstoff L, Perez K, Cramer DW et al. Menstrual and reproductive factors in relation to ovarian cancer risk. Br J Cancer 2001;84:714-21
OC-7: Zhang M, Xie X, Lee AH, Binns CW. Prolonged lactation reduces ovarian cancer risk in Chinese women. Eur J Cancer Prev 2004;13:499-502

Osteoporosis:

OS-1: Aloia JF, Cohn SH, Vaswani A, Yeh JK, Yuen K, Ellis K. Risks factors for postmenopausal osteoporosis. Am J Med 1985;78:95-100
OS-2: Melton LJ, Bryant SC, Wahner HW, O’Fallon WM, Malkasian GD, Judd HL, Riggs BL. Influence of breastfeeding and other reproductive factors on bone mass later in life. Osteoporosis Int 1993;3:76-83
OS-3: Cumming RG, Klineberg RJ. Breastfeeding and other reproductive factors and the risk of hip fractures in elderly women. International J Epidemiol 1993;22:684-91
OS-4: Blaauw R, Albertse EC, Beneke T, Lombard CJ, Laubscher R, Hough FS. Risk factors for the development of osteoporosis in a South African population. S Afr Med J 1994;84:328-32
OS-5: Krieger N, Kelsey JL, Holford TR. O’Connor T. An epidemiologic study of hip fractures in potmenopausal women. Am J Epidemiol 1982;116:141-8
OS-6: Lopez JM, Gonzalez G, Reyes V, et al. Bone turnover and density in healthy women during breastfeeding and after weaning. Osteoporosis Int 1996;6:153-9
OS-7: Ritchie JM, Fung EB, Halloran BP, et al. A longitudinal study of calcium homeostasis during human pregnancy and lactation and after resumption of menses. Am J Clin Nutr 1998;67;693-701
OS-8: Kolthoff N, Elken P, Kristensen B, et al. Bone mineral changes during pregnancy and lactation: a longitudinal cohort study. Clin Sci 1998;94:405-12
OS-9: Pollatti F, Caouzzo E, Viazzo F, et al. Bone mineral changes during and after lactation. Obstet Gynecol 1999;94:52-6
OS-10: Chantry CJ, Auinger P, Byrd RS. Lactation among adolescent mothers and subsequent bone mineral density. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2004;158:650-6

Endometrial Carcinoma:

EC-1: Petterson B, Hans-Olov A, Berström R, Johansson EDB. Menstruation span—a time-limited risk factor for endometrial carcinoma. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 1986;65:247-55
EC-2: Rosenblatt KA, Thomas DB, and the WHO collaborative study of neoplasia and steroid contraceptives. Prolonged Lactation and endometrial cancer. Int J Epidemiol 1995;24:499-503

Breast Cancer:

BC-1: Layde PM, Webster LA, Baughman AL, Wingo PA, Rubin GL, Ory HW and the cancer and steroid hormone study group. The independent associations of parity, age at first full term pregnancy, and duration of breastfeeding with the risk of breast cancer. J Clin Epidemiol 1989;42:963-73
BC-2: Ing R, Ho JHC, Petrakis NL. Unilateral breastfeeding and breast cancer. Lancet July 16, 19977;124-27
BC-3: McTiernan A, Thomas DB. Evidence for a protective effect of lactation on risk of breast cancer in young women. Am J Epidemiol 1986;124:353-74
BC-4: Yuan J-M, Yu MC, Ross RK, Gao Y-T, Henderson BE. Risk factors for breast cancer in Chinese women in Shanghai. Cancer Res 1988;58:99-104
BC-5: Yoo K-Y, Tajima K, Kuroishi T, Hirose K, Yoshida M, Miura S, Murai H. Independent protective effect of lactation against breast cancer: a case-control study in Japan. Am J Epidemiol 1992;135:726-33
BC-6: Reuter KL, Baker SP, Krolikowski FJ. Risk factors for breast cancer in women undergoing mammography. Am J Radiol 1992;158:273-8
BC-7: United Kingdom National Case-Control Study Group. Breastfeeding and risk of breast cancer in young women. Br Med J 1993;307:17-20
BC-8: Newcomb PA, Storer BE, Longnecker MP, Mittendorf R, Greenberg ER, Clapp RW, et al. Lactation and a reduced risk of premenopausal breast cancer. N Eng J Med 1994;330:81-7
BC-9: Tao S-C, Yu MC, Ross RK, Xiu K-W. Risk factors for breast cancer in Chinese women of Beijing. Int J Cancer 1988;42:495-98
BC-10: Siskind V, Schofield F, Rice D, Bain C. Breast cancer and breastfeeding: results from an Australian case-control study. Am J Epidemiol 1989;130:229-36
BC-11: Romieu I, Hernández-Avila M, Lazcano E, Lopez L, Romero-Jaime R. Breast cancer and lactation history in Mexican women. Am J Epidemiol 1996;143:543-52
BC-12: Furberg H, Newman B, Moorman P, Millikan R. Lactation and breast cancer risk. Int J Epidemiol 1999;28:396-402
BC-13: Tryggvadóttir L, Tulinius H, Eyfjord JE, Sigurvinsson T. Breastfeeding and reduced risk of breast cancer in an Icelandic cohort study. Am J Epidemiol 2001;154:37-42
BC-14: Collaborative Group on hormonal factors in breast cancer. Breast cancer and breastfeeding: collaborative reanalysis of individual data from 47 epidemiological studies in 30 countries, including 50,302 women with breast cancer and 96,973 women without the disease. Lancet 2002;360:187-95
BC-15: Becher, HeikoSchmidt, Silke 2,3; Chang-Claude, Jenny 2 Reproductive factors and familial predisposition for breast cancer by age 50 years. A case-control-family study for assessing main effects and possible gene-environment interaction. International Journal of Epidemiology. 32(1):38-48, February 2003.
BC-16: Bernier MO, Plu-Bureau G, Bossard N, et al. Breastfeeding and breast cancer: a metanalysis of published studies. Hum Reprod Update 2000;6:374-86
BC-17: Lee SY, Kim MT, Kim SW et al. Effect of lifetime lactation on breast cancer risk: a Korean women’s cohort study. In J Cancer 2003;105:390-3
BC-18: Jernström H, Lubinski J, Lynch HT, et al. Breastfeeding and the risk of breast cancer in BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation carriers. J Natl Cancer Inst 2004;96:1094-8

Weight loss:

WT-1: Dewey KG, Heinig MJ, Nommsen LA. Maternal weight loss patterns during prolonged lactation. Am J Clin Nutr 1993;58:162-6
WT-2: Kac G, Benício MHDA, Velásquez-Meléndez G, Joaquim et al. Breastfeeding and postpartum weight retention in a cohort of Brazilian women. Am J Clin Nutr, 2004; 79: 487 – 493
WT-3: Baker JL, Gamborg M, Heitmann BL, et al. Breastfeeding reduces postpartum weight retention. Am J Clin Nutr 2008;88:1543-51

Others:

O-1: Karlson EW, Mandl LA, Hankinson SE, Grodstein F. Do breastfeeding and other reproductive factors influence future risk of rheumatoid arthritis? Arthritis & Rheumatism. 2004;50 (11):3458-67
O-2: Stuebe AM, Rich-Edwards JW, Willett WC, et al. Duration of lactation and incidence of type 2 diabetes. J Am Med Assoc 2005;294:2601-2610

Risks to Society

S-1: Thapa S, Short RV, Potts M. Breastfeeding, birth spacing, and their effects on child survival. Nature 1988;335:679-82
S-2: Short . Breastfeeding (contraceptive effect). Scientific American 1984;250:35-41
S-3: Bitoun P. The economic value of breastfeeding in France. Les Dossiers de l’Obstetrique. 1994;#216 (available on request)
S-4: Radford A. The ecological impact of bottle feeding. (available on request)
S-5: Gross BA. Is the lactational amenorrhea method a part of natural family planning? Biology and policy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1991;165:2014-9
S-6: Kennedy KI, River R, McNeilly AS. Consensus statement on the use of breastfeeding as a family planning method. Contraception 1989;39:477-96

Compiled by Dr. Jack Newman
Revised: November 2006